This is a report on the International Lotus Sutra Seminar, held June 28–July 1, 2017, at Rissho Kosei-kai’s headquarters in Tokyo.
Introduction
The International Lotus Sutra Seminar is a yearly event gathering scholars from a range of nationalities and disciplinary fields, such as theology, history of religion, Buddhist studies, and more, to debate about the Lotus Sutra with the purpose of advancing academic knowledge and raising awareness about the text. This year the seminar focused on the teaching of the One Vehicle, which was explored in terms of the inclusiveness and universalism of its message. The topic resonates with the origins of the seminar, which started as a continuation of an interreligious dialogue between Buddhists and Christians. Past sessions saw renowned scholars and young researchers participate in the dialogue on the history and contents of the Lotus in the name of openness and constructive exchange. As stressed by Dr. Dominick Scarangello—the coordinator of the seminar—in his initial address, the initiative is primarily conceived as a space of “encounter with the other,” which embraces the creative tension emerging from such engagement.
Throughout the four days of the seminar, the ten papers presented and the subsequent discussion addressed the doctrine of the One Vehicle from a variety of perspectives, including its potential as a foundation for social and environmental ethics or its value as a message of inclusiveness in the field of interreligious dialogue. Participants also tackled inherent ambiguities of the Lotus Sutra, hidden behind the apparent simplicity of its universalistic message. In addition, the seminar featured visits to the temple Nakayama Hokekyōji and the Suginami Dharma Center of Rissho Kosei-kai, which provided participants with the opportunity to integrate academic discussion with firsthand insights on the Nichiren Buddhist traditions and the teaching and practices of Rissho Kosei-kai.
Summary of Presentations
“Universal Salvation, between the Lotus Sutra and the New Testament”
Joseph S. O’Leary, Sophia University, Tokyo
Dr. O’Leary addressed the notion of universal salvation in Christian and Buddhist traditions, focusing on the three dimensions of religious universality: soteriological, epistemological, and ontological. Moving between the New Testament and the Lotus Sutra, the paper investigated many possible implications that the message of universal salvation holds for religious traditions, from serving as an instrument of control and distribution of power or as a valuable tool in sectarian competition, to proving a higher, more integrated understanding of the traditions and rooting them in reality itself as what is most universal. While universal salvation is indeed an attractive idea, it also harbors many contradictions. On the soteriological level, universalistic rhetoric easily incurs the risk of turning into a hollow slogan and “selling salvation cheap,” thus instituting a necessity for theological optimism to be based on a solid doctrinal foundation. In their epistemological aspect, claims of universality can succumb to a monochrome inclusivist outlook that suppresses genuine pluralism. Moreover, as a religious message becomes identified with affirmation of the ultimate truth, a tension emerges between the alleged universality of divine revelation and the contingency of the founding figure as a human being who lived in a specific place and time. Different traditions adopted different strategies to reconcile the contradiction between the universality of the message and the singularity of its historical bearer.
At the ontological level, Dr. O’Leary suggested that soteriological universalism could be reduced to a claim on the nature of reality as such, thus turning the historical founder and universal savior into a cipher for reality. In the Lotus Sutra, “the Buddha becomes coterminous with reality itself,” no longer limited by space and time, an embodiment of the ultimate truth of emptiness. However, this ontological vision again bears potential tensions and contradictions. As reality as such is established as the supreme object of devotion, the risk for religion is to “disappear into reality,” becoming only one among its many possible accounts, not intrinsically different from those offered by art or philosophy.
“Right Speech in the Abhaya Sutra and Skillful Speech in the Lotus Sutra”
Kin Cheung, Moravian College, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania
What is the relationship between right speech and skillful speech? Can a lie ever be regarded as right speech? These are the questions opening the paper presented by Dr. Cheung, who investigated the meaning of deception in Buddhism. Moving from the notions of “right” speech and “skillful” speech as illustrated by the Abhaya Sutra and the Lotus Sutra, the author attempted to define a Buddhist approach to truth, investigated through both correspondence theory and pragmatic theory of truth.
Early Buddhism held inconsistent theories of truth, simultaneously holding naive interpretations of both correspondence and pragmatic theories. Approaches toward lying appear contradictory as well, in some cases condemning deception as a fundamental violation while admitting “skillful lies”—statements that are untrue but beneficial—as possible actions for a bodhisattva. The attempt to give a definition of right speech adds a further layer of complexity. To navigate among many possible conceptualizations of truth, such as absence of logical inconsistency, soteriological validity, ethical obligation, Dr. Cheung referred to Francisca Cho and Richard Squier’s study on Buddhist use of language. In their analysis of the parable of the physician, the authors advanced an idea of plurality or multiplicity of truth not ascribing to either correspondence or pragmatic theory. The relationship between true speech as part of the eightfold path and skillful speech as upāya or hōben seems to mirror the apparent contradiction between correspondence and pragmatic theories of truth.
In the debate that followed, convenors expanded the issues raised by the paper, adding an ontological dimension. Buddhist principles such as the notions of emptiness or impermanence question the existence of an ultimate reality, or at least its accessibility by verbal means. If we define truth in terms of correspondence with reality, to state that the Dharma is accessible only through conventional and provisory statements denies the very possibility of affirming an ultimate truth. If right speech cannot be conceptualized in correspondential terms, it could be intended as an ethical commitment whose rightfulness depends on the intentions of the speakers. This formulation would imply a strictly pragmatic conceptualization of truth.
“Two Stories of a Rich Father and a Poor Son: An Exercise in Interreligious Dialogue”
Ernest Valea, Pro Vita Medica Foundation, Timisoara, Romania
Dr. Valea presented a comparison between the Buddhist story of the rich father and poor son and the Christian parable of the prodigal son, from the perspective of comparative theology. When talking about interreligious dialogue, there are three possible approaches to the salvific message of other religious traditions: pluralism, inclusivism, exclusivism. While each one has its own merit, they all harbor some problematic aspect. Dr. Valea finds a more constructive attitude toward interreligious dialogue in comparative theology, an alternative approach originally formulated by Francis Clooney and James Fredericks in the late 1980s, whose distinctive feature lies in moving from the standpoint of one’s faith. Investigating other doctrines from a specific religious background allows one to acknowledge the alterity of the other without judgment while also providing an opportunity to deepen the understanding of one’s own faith.
Moving from these considerations, Dr. Valea examined the Buddhist story of the rich father and poor son found in chapter 4 of the Lotus from his perspective as a Roman Catholic Christian, dialoguing with the commentary compiled by Dr. Gene Reeves. In his analysis, he detected several points of convergence, such as the substantially positive view of the nature of human beings. Buddhist and Christian traditions share the conviction that each person is a locus of enormous potential, rooted, respectively, in the notion of buddha-nature and in the belief of creation in the image and likeness of God. Attitude toward neighbors can be identified as another common trait, and one that could provide fertile ground for Christian-Buddhist cooperation in the domain of social action. In the concluding section, Dr. Valea carried on the comparativist exercise offering a possible interpretation of the parable of the prodigal son from a Buddhist standpoint.
“Wŏnhyo’s Understanding of the One Vehicle and Its Application in Contemporary Korea”
Lucy Hyekyung Jee, Yonsei University, Seoul, Korea
The paper presented by Dr. Jee addressed two fundamental issues, our present understanding of the doctrine of the One Vehicle and its possible applications to contemporary society, investigated through the work of the Buddhist exegete Wŏnhyo (617–686 CE). Wŏnhyo analyzed the doctrine of the One Vehicle with two categories, the aspect of a person and the aspect of the Dharma, or truth, which in turn is examined through four subcategories.
The first category moves from the question, Who can ride the One Vehicle? In his discussion, Wŏnhyo adopted an inclusivist perspective, arguing that all beings are potential subjects for enlightenment based on a logic of nondifferentiation between the world of sentient beings and the world of nirvana. The second category, the Dharma, deals with the content of the One Vehicle, examined through four rubrics. The principle is the nature of the One Vehicle, which ultimately consists in the truth of all sentient beings equally possessing buddha-nature. The teaching is the truth revealing the principle of the One Vehicle. Wŏnhyo explained the existence of three vehicles as indicating a differentiation of levels, not content, and corresponding to various degrees of understanding and capacities in practitioners. The cause of the One Vehicle is the cause of becoming a buddha, while the effect is becoming a buddha or acquiring a buddha-body.
Dr. Jee advanced that Wŏnhyo’s interpretation, if applied to contemporary Buddhism, has the potential to promote inclusiveness and equality as well as encourage self-affirmation and positive thinking, responding to the needs of an increasingly multicultural society. In support to her argument, she presented two cases of Korean Buddhist practitioners, the monk Pomyun and the nun Daehang, whose marked inclination toward syncretism, ecumenical dialogue, and innovative approaches to practice appear in line with the thought of Wŏnhyo.
“Girō Seno’o’s Buddhist Socialism, the Lotus Sutra, and the Interreligious Social Movement in the 1930s–1940s”
Kunihiko Terasawa, Wartburg College, Waverly, Iowa
Girō Seno’o was a Buddhist practitioner and founder of the Shinkō Bukkyō Seinen Dōmei (the Youth League for Revitalizing Buddhism), a transsectarian movement opposing capitalism and the ultranationalist militarism of 1930s Japan. The front built an alliance among Buddhists, Christians, Marxists, socialists, and labor unionists but ultimately did not succeed in its intent of reforming Japanese society, collapsing shortly after Seno’o’s arrest in 1936. As argued by Dr. Terasawa, the failure of the Youth League offers precious insights into several critical issues, such as transsectarian dialogue within Buddhism and the inherent tension between nationalism and transnationalism, the relationship between Buddhism and Marxism in terms of sociopolitical reform, and interaction with Social Christianity.
Seno’o’s work sheds new light on Buddhist social engagement and interreligious dialogue with Christianity. Dr. Terasawa emphasized the key role played by constant dialogue with progressive Christians in shaping his unique understanding of Buddhism. The influence of Marxism can be regarded as just as relevant. Seno’o became interested in Marxism after his experience within the Nichirenshugi movement led by Nissō Honda, which helped him realize some limitations of Buddhism in the promotion of sociostructural change. Combining Marxist socioeconomic analysis with Buddhist teachings, he elaborated a new interpretation of the “threefold refuge” (the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Sangha), which became the ideological foundation for the Youth Front. Seno’o shared Honda’s ideal to return to the figure of the historical Buddha Shakyamuni, which could be expected to foster a unification of Buddhism beyond transsectarian boundaries. His formulation was also imbued with a strong sentiment of compassion and love for the other stemming from the principle of interdependent co-arising, and was expected to foster a spirit of communitarianism within the Sangha.
His thought further developed in virtue of his encounter with the Social Christianity movement, in which he saw an ally with which to tackle social injustice. The author stressed how Seno’o did not conceive interreligious dialogue as a mere intellectual conversation but as a “dialogue in action” aimed at practical cooperation. His example could offer a model for contemporary interreligious cooperation for social reform or critical response to controversial issues such as public support of the Yasukuni Shrine.
“One Lesson Learned: The Burning Mansion Parable in Contemporary Manga and Ehon”
Jon Holt, Portland State University, Portland, Oregon
Across the centuries, the Lotus Sutra managed to charm countless people, including Buddhist practitioners and scholars as well as artists, performers, and many others. Beyond religious and scholarly interpretations, the text was approached from a multiplicity of perspectives, encompassing a wide range of visual adaptations. Dr. Holt chose to look at picture books (ehon) and comic books (manga) focusing on the rendition of the parable of the burning mansion.
The author examined textual and visual contents of four works by different authors, considering their stylistic choices in narrative flow, character design, proportion between text and pictures, predominance of stylized over realistic imaginary, and so on. Moving from Helen Kilpatrick’s considerations on the relationship between text and its original source (pretext), Dr. Holt investigated how the visual medium was employed to emphasize, disclose, challenge, and reinterpret the powerful message of the Lotus.
One of the peculiarities of hybrid media such as manga and ehon is the capacity of images to expand or add something to the original message of the text. Figurative language can even be used to convey individual interpretations and pursue a specific ideological agenda, as in the case of the last work examined in the paper, a commentary by Jirō Kuwata. Dr. Holt observed how Kuwata used extremely iconic images and a flow-chart layout to recode the Lotus and convey a philosophy based on the concept of “spirit” (tamashii). These considerations brought fascinating insights not only on the relationship between the Lotus and the authors of its adaptations but also on its impact on the readership, outlining a triadic relationship where author, text, and audience dynamically engage with each other. Another theme outlined by the paper was the capacity of the Lotus to adapt to multiple forms of artistic and cultural expressions, turning into a powerful medium to convey a range of meanings that transcend its religious value.
“Universalism or Exclusivism? Ekayāna in the Early Layers of the Lotus Sutra”
James B. Apple, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
The teaching of the One Vehicle is commonly interpreted in inclusive and egalitarian terms. More generally, when talking about the Lotus Sutra and the Mahayana Buddhist tradition, their universalistic stance tends to be taken for granted. The paper presented by Dr. Apple questioned such established understanding of the Lotus, particularly the assumption of its total universalism, by looking in more detail at the conceptualization of ekayāna (the One Vehicle) in the early layers of the text (chapters 1–10), unveiling its hidden ambiguity.
The paper opens by outlining the development of the notion of ekayāna in the broader Buddhist historical context of the period of the Three Vehicles, based on the use of the term in several Mahayana sutras. The gradual development of the concept within a minority of Buddhist groups was also connected to an increasing glorification of the figure of Siddhartha Gautama and the status of awakened being, which instituted a new and more prestigious religious goal. Consequently, in early bodhisattva sutras, the three vehicles were formulated as three paths that individuals can follow to attain three different spiritual goals (arhat, pratyekabuddha, and buddha).
Digging into the early layers of the Lotus Sutra, Dr. Apple observed how compounds of the derogatory term hīna are repeatedly used in relation to the three vehicles, thus connoting them as lesser pathways. Although acknowledged, other teachings are regarded as unreal or generally inferior to the one of the Lotus. The argument unveils inherent contradictions between the seemingly universalistic message of the sutra, centered on the egalitarian statement that all sentient beings possess buddha-nature and can attain buddhahood, and an exclusivist attitude toward the message itself, recognized as the only right path to full buddhahood, which rejects all those who do not accept it.
“The Influence of the Concept of One Vehicle in the Lotus Sutra on Jizang’s Discussion of Universal Buddha-Nature”
Chih-mien Adrian Tseng, Fo Guan University, Jiaosi, Taiwan
Do plants and trees possess buddha-nature and thus the capacity to become enlightened? The paper presented by Dr. Tseng addressed this issue through the work of the Chinese exegete Jizang (549–623), arguing how the universalistic formulation of buddha-nature deriving from his understanding of the One Vehicle can be said to include nonsentient beings (plants and trees). These considerations are linked to pressing challenges faced by contemporary society, notably the impact of climate change and environmental devastation, which institute an urgent need to rediscuss the relation between nature and mankind in terms of equality rather than dominance. The author suggested that a universalistic formulation of buddha-nature may constitute a Buddhist response to environmental ethics, and a crucial step in that sense.
The analysis of Jizang’s assertion of a universal buddha-nature was articulated on two levels. From an epistemological point of view, nonsentient beings such as plants and trees are perceived as being nondual with sentient beings. In an ontological perspective, instead, plants and trees can be said to possess buddha-nature by themselves. The author identified the peculiarity of Jizang’s approach in the combination of the teachings of the One Vehicle with the doctrine of emptiness and the Middle Way stated in the Nirvana Sutra. While the Nirvana Sutra excludes nonsentient beings from the concept of buddha-nature because of their lack of consciousness, Jizang conceptualized a truly universal notion, called the “Middle Way buddha-nature.” His interpretation is rooted in the idea of the One Vehicle as universal true reality, understood in terms of principle and ultimately identified with the doctrine of emptiness. He also postulated the existence of two kinds of wisdom, provisional and true, which can be regarded as two aspects of reality. While “reality with the aspect of skillful means” is associated with the aspect of being able to explain, involving cognitive activities, true reality is conceived as the passive condition of being explained, which lies beyond mind and consciousness. This formulation allows one to define buddha-nature as a truly universal condition, embracing all existences.
“Who Rides on the One Vehicle? From the Viewpoint of the Buddha”
Hiroshi Munehiro Niwano, Rissho Kosei-kai Gakurin Seminary, Tokyo
In his analysis of the teaching of the One Vehicle, Dr. Niwano shifts the focus from the vehicle itself to its passenger, the subject of the teaching. As the question of who rides the One Vehicle is intrinsically connected to the Mahayana concept of buddha-nature, this becomes an inquiry into who is acknowledged to have the ability to attain buddhahood. The Lotus Sutra does not clarify who rides the vehicle but, rather, focuses on the “destination,” that is, the achievement that comes from riding it, which is Buddha-wisdom. The text, though, repeatedly stresses the impossibility for practitioners to comprehend Buddha-wisdom and the teaching of the One Vehicle itself. However, such emphasis on the inability to understand the teachings turns into an affirmation of potential: the hidden wisdom that is not understood when it is revealed institutes a possibility of being known in the future. At the same time, this turns into an affirmation of equality among practitioners. Faced with the incomprehensible wisdom that underlies all teachings of the Buddha, they recognize that they are equal in their potential to become buddhas. In general, the One Vehicle can be seen to affirm that the Buddha’s audience consists entirely of bodhisattvas and that all living beings share the inherent capacity to become a buddha, overcoming a discrimination existing in previous vehicles. The bodhisattva vehicle achieves that by moving from a limited focus on individual enlightenment to the greater goal of liberation of others. Such interpretation of the teaching of the One Vehicle also resonates with the thought of Nikkyo Niwano, the founder of Rissho Kosei-kai.
In his concluding remarks, Dr. Niwano wondered about possible contributions that the wisdom of the One Vehicle can offer to present society. The law of dependent origination states that existence is in constant change, reminding us that all people, even those who seem unchangeable, can be transformed. In spite of how attractive this idea might sound, it may be hard to reconcile with some aspects of our everyday reality, such as the existence of evil. Becoming able to see everyone as a bodhisattva, then, becomes the first, fundamental step toward the liberation of others.
“The Ekayāna Doctrine in the Lotus Sutra and the Humanity Quest by Two Contemporary Japanese Buddhists”
Shinobu Arai Apple, University of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
In the present context marked by religious violence, conflict, and proliferation of nuclear armaments, how can religious institutions contribute to humanitarian discourse? In the attempt to combine research on the ekayāna doctrine with contemporary pacifist debate, Dr. Apple looked at conceptualization of the One Vehicle in the thought of Daisaku Ikeda and Nikkyo Niwano, leaders of Soka Gakkai and Rissho Kosei-kai, respectively, and its application to peace building and interreligious cooperation initiatives.
In the case of Rissho Kosei-kai, the author stressed how the bodhisattva practice is conceptualized in terms of action, notably efforts to improve one’s home, society, state, and the world. In this respect, she suggested that the Donate-a-Meal movement constitutes a “practical life-style framework of the bodhisattva practice.” More broadly, Rissho Kosei-kai’s application of the ekayāna doctrine can be defined as a “linkage model” that aims to create a strong sense of connection between members and people in the world.
On the other hand, Daisaku Ikeda’s take on the ekayāna doctrine is centered on the idea that all human beings inherently possess a condition of buddhahood but that a process of inner personal transformation is needed to bring this inner potential into life. This notion of “human revolution” is deeply embedded in Soka Gakkai’s activities in the areas of peace, culture, and education on a global scale. In contrast with Rissho Kosei-kai’s tendency to build federations and cooperative ties with other religious institutions, Soka Gakkai’s approach, defined by Dr. Apple as “activating model” of the ekayāna doctrine, appears more focused on individual development and formation of global citizens. In this respect, she referred to the notion of “humanitarian competition” advanced by the organization, defined as a cooperative form of competition alternative to military, political, and economic competition, where one could benefit oneself by working for the sake of others. In conclusion, both approaches show that the teaching of the One Vehicle can turn into a principle for social change and peace building, and that organizations like Soka Gakkai and Rissho Kosei-kai have the potential to significantly contribute to the pacifist debate.
Discussion―Common Themes
The Unfading Charm of the Lotus Sutra: Adaptability of the Text and Radicalness of Its Message
Across the centuries, the Lotus Sutra managed to charm generations of practitioners and scholars, and today it still continues to attract vibrant academic interest. Among the many reasons for such unfading attractiveness, the seminar drew particular attention to the high degree of adaptability of the text and the radicalness of its message. The content of the Lotus has inspired countless adaptations employing a range of different media, as in the case of the visual renditions examined by Dr. Holt. Adaptability can be regarded as an integral part of its teachings: the importance of knowing one’s audience—and articulating the message accordingly—is repeatedly stated in the text, primarily in the idea that Buddha resorts to countless means to convey the truth to sentient beings depending on their characteristics and degree of understanding. We can also talk about adaptability in another sense, as the capacity of the sutra to maintain its relevance despite the passing of time and changing historical and social circumstances, which can be attributed in great part to the radicalness of its message. The innovative strength stemming from the idea that all sentient beings possess buddha-nature makes the Lotus a powerful tool for action, and across the centuries many have been attracted by the text’s inherent potential as a vehicle of religious and social reform. Girō Seno’o’s reinterpretation of the three treasures based on a combination of the teachings of the sutra and Marxism offers a relevant example in this sense. The message of the Lotus remains valid at present, as argued by papers suggesting that it could serve to address pressing challenges such as environmental ethics (Dr. Tseng), peace work (Dr. Shinobu Apple), or the promotion of equality as diversity in contemporary multicultural societies (Dr. Jee). Still today, the innovative power of the text remains unchanged.
Hidden Ambiguity of the Message of the Lotus: Contradictions within Inclusivism and Universalism
We could also think about the Lotus Sutra as a masterful piece of rhetoric seducing the reader into a narrative so fascinating that he or she fails to notice its inherent contradictions. As argued, for example, by Dr. James Apple, the alleged universality and inclusiveness of the message of the Lotus hides some ambiguities: while claiming to transcend all sectarian differences, the sutra harbors the potential for exclusion of alternative religious traditions. The doctrine of the three vehicles is among the sources of such ambiguity, owing to its contradictory interpretations. In the parable of the burning house, for example, the One Vehicle emerges as a fourth vehicle, which can be seen as either embracing all the three vehicles or emerging as a new vehicle, superior to all others. These issues are also linked to the relationship between different Buddhist traditions, since at times the doctrine of the One Vehicle and the three vehicles has been used to articulate sectarian differences and institute hierarchical classifications of Buddhist schools and teachings.
A further element of ambiguity can be identified in forms of weak and strong paternalism pervading the Lotus, especially in relation to discussions on the “right way” of teaching. The use of lies and deception to convey truth, examined by Dr. Cheung, is one among many examples of paternalistic attitudes mentioned in the text. The teacher is attributed complete discretion over what to disclose to disciples, and when and how, as seen in the parables of the burning house and the physician. The sutra itself can turn into an instrument of paternalism when used to impose a message on the readership, as suggested by Dr. Holt when arguing that Jirō Kuwata “almost turned the text into hōben (skillful means) to spread his own religious thought.”
Considerations on exclusivist and paternalist undertones also relate to the discussion on potential applications of the One Vehicle to interreligious cooperation. Possible approaches to interfaith dialogue were one of the leitmotifs of the seminar. Several papers, such as those of Dr. Valea and Dr. Niwano, considered advantages and dangers of the main approaches (inclusivism, exclusivism, pluralism), which were discussed also in relation to another recurrent topic: universalism and its potential risks. The claim for universal salvation is without doubt an attractive message. However, as argued by Dr. O’Leary and further elaborated in the debate throughout the seminar, it also harbors many conceptual risks. Notably, universalizing a religious message, even with the intention of promoting inclusiveness in interfaith dialogue, implies the risk of flattening out the particularities of specific religious traditions, depriving them of their own peculiar identity. Epistemological universalism harbors similar risks. Adopting an inclusive perspective when discussing religious messages as expressions of ultimate truth easily leads to the assumption that all religions ultimately state the same truth but through different formulations. Although this approach might be helpful in overcoming transsectarian divergences, the risk of nullifying the particularity of specific religious traditions remains high.
Historicizing the Lotus: Influence of Sociohistorical Circumstances on the Development of the One Vehicle Teaching
Another relevant issue that emerged from the discussion is the importance of “historicizing” the Lotus Sutra. Participants observed how analysis of the text tends to focus on its doctrinal contents, often failing to take into account the historical circumstances in which they were formulated and received throughout the centuries. Theological interpretations need to be integrated with awareness of the socioeconomic, political, and cultural circumstances of the time, as argued by Dr. James Apple, whose paper underlined the influence of dynamics of interaction within Buddhist community on the compilation of the Lotus, arguing that the One Vehicle could be seen as an attempt to proclaim the superiority of the one path without openly questioning the shravaka tradition.
Among other factors that contributed to shape the way teachings were articulated and interpreted, we could also list authorship and socioeconomic conditions for publishing manuscripts and commentaries, or the circumstances in which the text spread across different geographical and linguistic areas, such as developments and cultural adaptations that occurred in translation.
Personal experiences of Buddhist exegetes and thinkers offer another perspective from which to reflect on the effect of historical factors on the reception of the teachings of the Lotus. Dr. Jee observed how Wŏnhyo’s interpretation of the One Vehicle was influenced by his marked concern for the suffering of the underprivileged, probably developed in response to the rigid social stratification of his time. The influence of sociocultural circumstances appears manifest in Girō Seno’o’s earnest social commitment and political engagement.
On a slightly different note, Dr. Tseng mentioned possible pragmatic reasons behind Jizang’s universalistic conceptualization of buddha-nature: his innovative approach could have been an attempt to obtain legitimacy and state support for his school and to make it more appealing in a context of fierce competition among Buddhist schools.
In general, these examples showed how social and historical circumstances represent a key factor in the development of doctrinal interpretations and the commentary tradition.
Concluding Remarks
In conclusion, the seminar showed how the teaching of the One Vehicle still today possesses a significant potential for application not only in the field of interreligious dialogue but also in response to a wide range of pressing issues faced by contemporary societies. The seminar also shed a new light on hidden contradictions of the Lotus Sutra, despite its apparent universalism and total inclusiveness. However, we could argue that it is precisely in virtue of its complexity that the text never ceased to charm religious practitioners and scholars alike and continues to attract the interest of a wide range of people even centuries after its compilation.
